Indonesia Carving Motif

Jepara Carving Motif

The forms of leaf carving on this motif form a triangle and oblique. At each end there are usually leaves or fruits with flowers will form a circle. The form is not just a single circle, but the shape is more than one or terraced. The circle at the base of larger, more to the tip has narrowed. There is also going to flower or fruit in the form of a large circle surrounded by several smaller circles.

SHAPE MOTIF:

1. Of Leaves.

Principal leaf motif has its own style, which is dome-shaped and circular-niche. At the finish there are niches that gather leaves.

Principal form of dome-shaped leaf-carved this niche when sliced, incorporating a triangular prism.

2. Flower AND Fruit.

Flowers and fruit at this Jepara motif convex (rounded) as fruit wine or fruit Wuni arranged rows or clustered. This flower is often found on the corner of the meetings niche of the principal or there are leaves on the end niche surrounded by leaves, while the interest follows the shape of its leaves.

3. Fractions.

In the fractional leaf motif carvings have 3 pieces of lines that follow the direction of leaf shape, so it looks like a light.

4. Facts:

Carving Jepara motif is basically made most of the base or not so deep, often made on the basis of (invisibility), engraving is often called krawangan carving or engraving a glass insert. Jepara carving motif is often used to decorate your craft goods.

Bali Carving Motif

Bali motif is one type of traditional carving motifs that developed in the archipelago. This motif as well as other traditional motifs, closely related to the granting of royal names found in the region. Balinese motifs are carved motifs thought to be relics of kings or kingdoms that have progressed culture of that era. This Balinese motifs form graceful, rhythmic with a flexible style, grand and dignified, as if describing the personality of the king and his community.

Bali motif has several characteristics, which can be sorted into two kinds of characteristics of a general nature and of a special nature.

Common characteristics:

Bali motif carvings have all the forms of leaves, flowers and fruit in the form of convex and concave. It can be said that the motive of Bali is a mixture of motives that have a blend between the concave and convex shapes.

Special features:

1. Tweezers on Balinese motifs as well as on other motives, have the form of a loopy at the end.

2. This Sunggar motif found only in Bali alone. Sunggar form grows from the tip of the leaf curl benangan principal.

3. Endong on this motif of leaves that grow behind the principal leaves, like the ending contained in the motifs and motif Pejajaran Majapahit.

4. Simbar on Balinese motifs as found in the motifs and motif Pejajaran Majapahit with a distinctive shape as well. Simbar located in front of the base of the principal leaves the shape of the plot, so as to form a harmonious whole on this motif.

5. Trubus leaves that grow in this motif grows on the top of the dome-shaped leaves that form the principal curved gracefully.

6. Benangan in this motif form a special or unique. Benangannya partially convex and oblique. This Benangan grow circular until the end of the curls.

7. This fraction as well as on other motives, have broken the sweep line on the main leaf and broken cawen found on leaf carvings Patran, so as to increase harmony and beauty of carving shapes.

Mataram Carving Motif

Motif Mataram is a traditional carving motifs that developed and popular in the area of Java. Similar patterns and motifs Majapahit Bali which was closely related to the granting of royal names that ever existed in Java. This motif can also be viewed from two things: general characteristics and specific characteristics,

Common characteristics:

Motif Mataram has all the good leaf carvings form the main leaf and small leaf-shaped concave. The basin in terms of traditional carving called krawingan. The form of this motif carved leaf shaped leaves Patran, at the end there who have curly leaves and some are not loopy. Mataram composition of leaf motifs are usually clustered to resemble the natural leaf.

Special features:

1. Benangan motive is divided into 2 types, namely (a) benangan arise, and (b) benangan line.

2. Leaves Trubus in this motif is the most-shaped leaves form hunchback. Trubus leaves usually grow in the face benangan and stopped under the curly leaf, as if holding the leaf curl.

3. Fractions in Mataram most shaped motif cawen fractions. In addition there are also pieces of broken cawen lines contained on the interesting parts of this form of leaf motifs. A fraction of this motif does seem more varied than in other forms other motives.

Yogyakarta Carving Motif

Yogyakarta motif is a motif that uses a traditional Javanese kingdom that flourished in the region. Kingdom of Yogyakarta which still exist today, although now become one of the territory of the unitary Republic of Indonesia. Yogyakarta Kingdom is a continuation of the past glory of Islamic Mataram Kingdom with the result of a highly developed culture of art, whether it be carving, batik, ceramics or other cultural products. Yogya community character character represent the Java community in general is a high priority to the moral value of good manners, upload ungguh and cultural tolerance among others, mutual cooperation, mutual respect for fellow human beings that is quite thick in the order of daily life.

The motive of Yogyakarta is famous by the name of Yogya silver engraving. The form of this motif took a sample of the element of fern leaves. Principal leaf-carved niche berelung, graceful with convex and concave shapes of leaves that grow in these niches. At the end of this niche often grow flowers that bloom beautifully. Flowers that bloom provides a symbol of a young girl who is blossoming, blooming and also symbolizes the beginning of progress toward a higher progress. This indicates that a person must have high ideals to achieve a bright future.

Pajajaran Carving Motif

Features :

All forms of leaves starting from leaf carvings principal, Dunn shoot, leaf and fruit flower Patran etc. convex (rounded)

Special Features :

* Tweezers. Pajajaran motif has some tweezers ie

(1). Large tweezers on the main leaf

(2). Tweezers While the leaves are

(3). Small tweezers trubusan leaf.

* Horns. This motif shaped curved horns facing forward.

* Endong. Form of engraving that grow side by side / behind the main leaf

with curly contained in these final endong leaf carvings.

* Simbar. Having Simbar as the principal sweetener in the form of leaf carving

also typical.

* Benangan. Benangan in leaf carving poko shaped like a stalk arising

contained upfront principal leaf carvings, while there is a line benangan

in young leaf carvings.

* Fractions. Fractions line serves as a sweetener, the leaves spread on the principal

leaves and leaf fragments cawen in Patran and fractions on the carving leaf

another.

Majapahit Carving Motif

Feature – Special Feature :

* tweezers. Majapahit motif has tweezers and curls that are concave on

the top while at the end of the tweezers are curly as the end of the tweezers

them.

* Arrange Jambul. Crest stacking is characteristic contained in the motif majapahit

Crest apartments are located in advance in the main leaf.

* Leaves Trubus. Leaf flush in this motif grows mostly above the main leaf ..

* Simbar. shaped like Simbar that there is another motive. also functions

as an enhancer of beauty alone.

* Benangan. This motive is sometimes – sometimes have double benangan besides benangan

line.

* Fractions. like any other motive, the motive majapahit fractions have broken lines

which propagates in the principal leaves and broken cawen found on leaf carvings

Patran, which add beauty carving

How To Hand Sew

The simple technique shown here is one of the most versatile sewing methods that upholsters use. With it you can close pillows and cushions, make repairs, sew down outside arms and backs, and cover some of your goofs. You'll see other sewing methods where we install seats and so on, in later segments.

Here we're using a cushion stretcher, or cushion equalizer. It's adjustable and locks in place making our job much easier. You can also use upholsterers pins, or that expensive tool, the clothes pin. I'm using a 3 1/2" curved needle and nylon hand sewing twine for this job. I'll use black thread so you can see me working and also so you can see that when this done right, the thread doesn't show anyway (maybe they should teach this in medical school). For light weight fabrics use a thinner, smaller needle and thinner but strong sewing machine thread. Also, it's a good idea to have marked the center of the plates to help you keep them aligned.

Tie a knot in the end of the twine and thread needle. Start by going inside the pillow to the right so as to lap the sewing machine stitch. See above photo.

Next take about a 1/2" bite through the welt fabric, less for lighter weight fabric. Avoid going into the cord itself. Pull tight.

Hold your thread straight up and down to determine where your needle should enter the upper plate. Continue this method untill you've lapped the spot you sewed on your machine. If it looks as if the top plate, for example, is going to have more fabric than the bottom, then insert your needle a little to the left of normal on the top plate. This will help take up some of the slack.

When you're finished sewing wrap the twine around the needle a time or two and insert it into the pillow fabric or welt. Hold the thread snugly, close to the spot where the needle goes in. This will produce a knot which can stay inside the fabric keeping your work from coming loose. You'll usually hear a little popping sound when you successfully tug the knot into the right place. Cut off the excess twine.

How To Install a Zipper in a Pillow

Cut your zipper length about 1-2" from pillow plate corners. We use #4 aluminuim chain zipper. Put the slide on the proper end. Fold a piece of pillow fabric and sew far enough back across it to leave a small pocket to hide the zipper slide when the pillow is closed. Sew another fabric tab across the other end of the zipper.

Skip this step if your pillow has no welt. Center zipper piece to pillow plates. Start sewing at the plate's corner and the center of the fabric tab, expanding outward as you approach the zipper. Then sew as close as you can to both the zipper teeth and the welt cord. 

Next fold fabric 1/2" and top stitch the other pillow plate to the zipper. Try to cover at least half the zipper teeth. You shouldn't be able to see any of the zipper at this point. If you don't have welt cord on your project, sew both plates in the same manner. Back stitch or sew twice at the beginning and ending corners as you learned in "Cutting and Sewing Basics".

Try to use a thread color that blends with your fabric. The better you can hide the zipper the more you'll avoid the "why didn't you use a colored zipper?" complaint.

How to Make Pillows and Cushions

CUTTING AND SEWING BASICS;

Measure existing pillow with a tape measure, between the welts. The first measurement is up and down. Second is side to side. We'll be using 1/2" seams on most articles in our series, so, add 1" to your measurements to get the cut size. Figure the length of the welt cord. It can be 1 1/2-2" wide, it doesn't have to be exact. Cut the welt material on the bias, that is, diagonally. This will prevent "snaking" or twisting by making the welt fabric more flexible.

Notice the fabric we're using is railroaded, that is, the pattern is run up the roll. It doesn't matter much for a pillow or even a chair but if we were covering a sofa, this fabric could run the entire length of the inside back (IB), outside back (OB), or seat without having to be pieced.

Most upholstery weight fabrics are about 54" wide. We have a 60" wide table by 7' and use a 60" ruler. Most fabrics seem to come cut crooked, so use a framer's square to even out the beginning of the material. Mark with chalk and cut out the 2 fabric squares (plates). Put a"T" on the top so you won't get confused when you get to the sewing machine. Mark everything that you cut, (or you'll be sorry) even the backside of the welt.

Make sure both plates are the same size by laying them face to face and trim where nesassary. Due to the warp and woof properties of fabric they will often pull to one direction or the other even though you may have cut them exactly the same measurements. The plates have to be the same or the corners won't line up. Add a bow to the fabric (as in above photo). Start with about an 1/2" and taper off to nothing in about 4" or 5". See the scrap above the sissors. The bow makes up for the dip (like rabbit ears) that you would see in the filled pillow if cut straight across . Shape all four corners this way on a pillow that you're going to close by hand but not on the bottom of one that gets a zipper.

We use an industrial upholstery machine which features a walking foot and reverse. It takes large prewound bobbins which saves a lot of time. For most jobs we use #16 polyester top thread and bobbins. Three basic colors are necessary: black, white, and beaver (a neutral beige). It's good to have a spool of clear thread on hand, especially for top stitching when you don't have the right color.

Here's picture of a walking foot. This is a zipper foot which I use for most sewing jobs. I've ground the left side of it down a little so I get really close to the welt.

If your welt material is in more than one piece join them now with a 1/2" seam and back stitch or sew twice if necessary. We mostly use 5/32 jute welt cord. Fold the welt fabric around the cord and begin sewing either on the side or bottom of one plate. Never start, end or piece the welt fabric on the top of a pillow or front of a cushion. Use 1/2" seams. The seam (1/2") is the distance from where the needle enters the plate to the ouside of the plate. Get close to the welt, learn to feel for the cord inside with your finger tips. But be carefull, of course, of your fingers when sewing.

Two or three inches before the corners, stop, leaving the needle in the fabric to secure it, and make 3 cuts to help release the welt fabric to easily make the turn. Make one cut directly across from the plate corner and one before that point and one after. Again, stop sewing when your needle has come to the spot directly across from the plate corner, leave the needle in and lift the foot. Slightly crimp the welt as you turn the plate for the next side.

Finish off sewing the welt by butting the cord ends together and lapping the welt material at least 1/2" to 3/4". We leave no raw edges on any job with the sometimes exception of when we're using vinyl.

 

Be carefull to keep the seam even and close to the welt cord. If you'd like to have a zipper in your project then go now to, "How To Install A Zipper In A Pillow".

If you're going to hand sew your project, place the plate with the welt already sewn, on top of the second plate and line up the corners. Leave just enough space at the bottom to insert the filling. If you installed a zipper start at the corner and back stitch a few stitches. Sew on top of or just to the left of the the previous line of thread. Try sewing a pillow with contrasting thread to test yourself. The thread shouldn't show when you turn the pillow right side out. You can fill the pillow with a pre-made form of down or kapok or make your own . We make a cover of quilted polyester by stapling the sides and fill with leftover loose polyester from wrapping cushions. See, "How To Hand Sew" to finish off your pillow.

The Furnishing of an Eighteen Century Bed

by Bertram Chapman MBE, Chairman Albert E. Chapman Ltd

An elegant Flying Tester bed (Angel Bed) Circa 1730 from Raynham Hall in Norfolk came to us to be upholstered after careful restoration of the all the wood elements by Christopher Howe.

It was our task, under the auspices of English Heritage, to bring the bed back to its former glory, before its removal to the Georgian Wing of Hampton Court Palace.

Research into provenance for the bed was involved and not entirely conclusive as the following shows:

Raynham Hall Angel's Bed

The history of his bed is obscure but by scouring the Raynham Hall household accounts and searching for stylistic and archaeological evidence it has been possible to map out the following provenance.

Examination of the extensive and detailed household accounts and documents revealed no evidence beyond supposition that could be used, although there is much evidence related to beds between 1708 and 1777, but none actually mentioning the bed in question.

However, stylistic evidence played an important part in the research and through detailed searches it has been possible to piece together a credible history of the bed with strong pointers as to its origin. Although there are many state beds from the periods 1700-1720 and 1750-1800, there are few datable examples from the 1730s and 1740s, and the Raynham bed shares few features with the earlier beds. The closest, stylistically, is one at Leeds Castle, Kent which has the same cabriole finials at its feet, similar valance arms and the headboard must have originally had very similar 'organ pipes' (the central three headposts). Unfortunately there is no documentary evidence dating the Leeds bed exactly, but dates prior to 1720 have been suggested which run contrary to a Heals trade card for upholsterer William Tomkins which put the date after 1740.

Next, archaeological evidence was considered. Extensive investigation of the Raynham bed showed that timber elements were once covered with a painted cotton fabric which, for convenience has been termed 'chintz' and chintz was in vogue in England, particularly in the period 1700-1730.

Therefore the bed at Raynham Hall was covered in chintz and this is supported by reference to chintz having been used on a bed when two drapers were paid £3. 4s for calico and chintz for Lord Townshend's bed in 1740. This suggests that the work was 'repair' to an existing bed in the 'chintz bedchamber' originating before 1730 and this is the provenance that has been ascribed to the Angel Bed, which when brought for conservation and restoration by Bert Chapman bore a replacement cover of damask of no proven date. The decision was taken to cover the bed in new damask, but to retain some of the best of the old.

The following illustrates some of the procedures employed to bring the project to a successful conclusion.

Fig 1. The Angel Bed at Raynham Hall , Norfolk

The bed illustrated in Fig 1. consists of 36 separate elements, either slotted, tenoned, screwed or bolted together, each one of which is now covered with gold damask and mostly trimmed with braid.

The adhesive used to apply the damask was the first conundrum we had to solve. The use of rabbit skin size was abandoned because of doubts as to its effectiveness and its compatibility with the various fabric materials involved. We finally settled on a mixture of 90% of rye paste, Sandersons wallpaper paste which contained an anti fungicide and 10% of the water based Clam 2. This proved very effective provided it was spread lightly and evenly. The trick was to leave the applied damask to dry thoroughly before attempting any trimming of the edges, which was finally achieved using a scalpel - a very delicate and precise operation for one slip or false move could result in slashed fabric or at worst cut fingers and blood everywhere!

The Tester

Fig 3. Piece of the Damask furnishing the bed when brought to our attention

We retained this piece for the centre section of the tester and used new damask for the rest of the bed.

The Tester Support Brackets - Valance Arms

Figs 4 and 5 illustrate the two elements of each of the two support brackets. These essentially unsupported hanging brackets are most unusual. They 'hang' from the cornice frame and give form to the multi-layered fabric lower section valance which is some three times the height of the solid cornice above. The substantial construction of the 'valance' maintains its almost 'flying' form and contributes hugely to the elegant almost ethereal quality of the bed.

Fig 4. Top Section (left).   Fig 5. The bottom scroll (below)

Leaf Crests

The photograph below shows the simple method of fixing the crests to the centre of each of the three sided cornice. Here three crests are pictured, the centre lying on its back.

The crests have wood spigots which are mounted in slots or mortices in the cornice frame.

This picture at Fig 7. shows the use of one piece of fabric to cover the small elements, such as crests, to avoid joins. The fullness on internal corners cut away.

These leaf crests are not seen from the reverse side therefore we were able glue down a 20mm turning on the back.

Pierced leaf fans

The pierced leaf fans are covered and braided. When the bed is assembled each fan sits on top of a bed head post.

It is essential that the appropriate width of braid is used to wrap the edges of the part. On beds of this type three widths of braid are generally required 15mm, 20mm and 25mm for the wide flat edge at the top of the cornice.

Shaped and carved head posts

The pierced fans at Fig 8 stand on top of each head post (Fig 9. left) while the feet fit into cups in the headboard.

The three heavy central vertical wooden head posts (Fig 10. right) were changed, on advice from Peter Thornton curator of the Department of Woodwork at the V&A, to ones of laminated hessian.

These were much lighter in weight yet very rigid.

To make them we used, as a mould, one of the original semicircular wooden posts. Firstly a wrapping of thin plastic was placed around the post to prevent the successive layers of hessian sticking to the mould. Each layer of hessian was then coated with a layer of thick scotch glue which when dry was sanded down to a smooth finish before the next layer of hessian applied. The four layers of hessian had a final cover of calico before the damask was applied.

The three posts slot neatly into the recesses provided for them in the yoke at the top and the headboard below.

The Yoke

Below are shots of the bed, temporally erected in the workshop. This enabled us to decide on the correct proportions of the bed valances and the base valances coverlet and bolster.

Below is a close up of the completed headboard.

and finally, the completed bed in situ at Hampton Court Palace.

Furnitue Periods and Style

Furniture History.
Furniture Period and their style..

DATES	BRITISH MONARCH	BRITISH PERIOD	FRENCH PERIOD	GERMAN PERIOD	U.S. PERIOD	STYLE	PRINCIPAL WOODS
1558-1603	Elizabeth I	Elizabethan	Renaissance	Renaissance (to c. 1650)	Early Colonial	Gothic	Oak Period (to c. 1670)
1603-1625	James I	Jacobean
1625-1649	Charles I	Carolean	Louis XIII 1610-43			Baroque (c.1620-1700)
1649-1660	Commonwealth	Cromwellian	Louis XIV (1643-1715)	Renaissance/ Baroque (c.1650-1700)
1660-1685	Charles II	Restoration
1685-1688	James II	Restoration
1688-1694	William &Mary	William &Mary			William &Mary
1694-1702	William III	William III			Dutch Colonial	Rococo (c.1695-1760)
1702-1714	Anne	Queen Ann		Baroque (c.1700-30)	Queen Ann
							Walnut period (c.1670-1735) Early Mahogany period (c.1735-70) Late Mahogany period (c.1770-1850)
1714-1727	George I	Early Georgian	Regency (1715-23)
1727-1760	George II	Early Georgian	Louis XV (1723-74)	Rococo (c.1730-60)	Chippendale (from 1750)
1760-1811	George III	Late Georgeian	Louis XVI (1774-93) Directoire (1793-99) Empire (1799-1815)	Neo-classicism (c.1760-1800) Empire (c.1800-15)	Early Federal (1790-1810) American Directoire (1798-1804) Amercan Empire (1804-15)	Neo-classical (c.1755-1805) Empire (c.1799-1815)
1812-1820	George III	Regency	Restauration (1815-30)	Biedermeier (c.1815-48)	Later Federal (1810-30)	Regency (c.1812-80)
1820-1830	George IV	Regency
1830-1837	William IV	William IV	Louis Philippe (1830-48) 2nd Empire (1848-70) 3rd Republic (1871-1940)	Revivale (C.1830-80) Jugendstil (c.1880-1920)		Eclectic (c.1830-80) Arts&Crafts (c.1880-1900)
1837-1901	Victorian	Victorian			Victorian
1901-1910	Edward VII	Edwardian			Art Nouveau (c.1900-20)	Art Nouveau (c.1900-20)

Types of Wood

Furniture wood provides color and texture, strength and beauty to furniture- whether it's home furniture or office furniture. Wood properties differ from one type of wood to another type of wood. The wood which is required for making wooden beds or outdoor furniture must be more durable as compared to the wood used for making smaller decorative items like wooden mirror frames. All the woods are divided into two broad categories- hardwoods and softwoods. Before knowing about different types of wood, it is better to know the basic wood properties that distinguish one type from another.

Wood Properties

Some types of wood are very hard and durable and some are flexible enough to be bent. "Hardwood" is one of the common types of wood which is obtained from trees that lose their leaves in winter. The other type of wood, the "Softwood" is obtained from evergreen trees like fir, pine and redwood. All the woods fall between a range from very soft to very hard.

All types of wood have distinctive grain structure. Woods like white and red oak, ash and walnut have open-pores in the form of small holes on their surface that give a distinct textural quality to furniture pieces like wooden cupboards or wooden desks. When the surface of this wood is stained, the color tends to collect in the "open-pores" and appears darker than the rest of the piece. There are other woods like maple, alder, and cherry which are tight grained woods. These woods are have smooth texture and can take finish evenly. Apart from grains, one more characteristic of many woods is unique figures on their surface such as quilting, birdseye, fiddleback or spalting. These naturally occurring characteristics can make a furniture acquire extra ordinary beauty.

Hardwoods

Mahogany: is finely grained wood with reddish brown color. It is highly durable and can resist swelling, shrinking and warping. It is extensively used for quality furniture such as wooden cabinets, boat construction, wood facings and veneers.

Walnut: has fine texture and is strong, easy to work with. It resists shrinking and warping and can take all types of finishes very well. It is mostly used for making gunstocks, solid and veneered furniture, novelties, cabinetry and wall paneling.

Oak: has good bending qualities apart from being durable. It finishes well and resists moisture absorption. Oak is good for furniture, trimming, boat framing, wooden desks and flooring.

Maple: is a fine textured wood with immense strength and hardness. With moderate shrinkage, maple machines well and is best used in flooring, fine furniture and woodenware such as bowling alleys.

Cherry: is close-grained wood and as resists warping and shrinking. It gets red when exposed to sunlight. It ages well and is extensively used in cabinet making, boat trim, novelties and solid furniture handles.

Rosewood: is close grained hard wood with dark reddish brown color. It has an exclusive fragrance. It is hard to work upon and takes high polish. It is good for making musical instruments, piano cases, tool handles, art projects, veneers and furniture.

Teak: is a hard and moisture- resistant wood. It resists warping, cracking and decay and is best used in fine furniture, paneling, shipbuilding, doors, window framing, flooring and as a general construction wood.

Shesham: is also known as Indian Rosewood and is a rich medium brown wood with deep grains. It is a fast-growing hardwoods and the functional furniture made from it can deal with everyday stresses and strains without loosing its attractive appearance. It is highly durable, easily carved and is exclusively used for making furniture, particularly almirahs and cabinets.

Softwoods

Pine: has a uniform texture and is very easy to work with. It finishes well and resists shrinkage, swelling and warping. It is widely used in house construction, paneling, furniture, molding and for making wooden boxes.

Hemlock: is lightweight and machines well. It is uniformly textured and has low resistance to decay. It is mainly used for construction lumber, planks, doors, boards, paneling, sub flooring and crates.

Fir: is uniformly textured and has low resistance to decay. It is nonresinous, works easy and finishes well. Fir is used for making furniture, doors, frames, windows, plywood, veneer, general millwork and interior trim.

Redwood: is light, durable and easy to work with. It has natural resistance to decay and is good for making outdoor furniture, fencing, house siding, interior finishing, veneering and paneling.

Spruce: is a strong wood that finishes well and has low resistance to decay. It possesses moderate shrinkage and is light. It is a good option for making masts and spars for ships, aircraft, crates, boxes, general millwork and ladders.

Cedar: is a reddish wood with sweet odor. It is very easy to work with, uniform in texture and is resistant to decay. Cedar is extensively used in chest making, closet lining, shingles, posts, dock planks, novelties and Venetian blinds.

Other Woods

There are many other types of wood that are made by wooden sheeting. These various types are available in thickness ranging from 4 mm to 24 mm.

MDF (Medium Density Fibre Board): is made from powdered wood bonded with glue and compressed to form the sheets. It is quite soft and very easy to work with. It cuts, sands and finishes very easily. It is used widely for interior projects especially for cupboards and shelving.

Chipboard: is made like MDF but from actual wood chips. It is used widely for kitchen furniture for which it is covered with a laminate. It is also used widely for low cost flooring.

Plywood: is made from thin laminates of wood glued together. Each layer is at right angle to the grain of the other. It is very strong but also quite flexible, especially if there are thinner sheets. It is used widely in the building industry.

The Re-Upholstery of Pair of Bergeres

By Bert Chapman MBE and Michael Barrington

This pair of English made bergère chairs, made in the late 18th Century or possibly early 19th, had been substantially altered, the gilded frames damaged and the upholstery poorly executed. The standard of the frame construction is good but they had been re-gilded without interlagio over the frame joints and there was much consequent cracking in those areas with deterioration of the gilded surfaces which were fairly knocked about overall, down to the bare wood and, in places, beyond . Unlike the right-hand picture these chairs were built to show the two vertical members and horizontal rail of the back which were gilded on their rear surfaces and sides. This was not apparent until the upholstery was removed. The previous gilder had taken the vertical members through the gesso stage followed by the upholsterer who covered them up. Research found pictures of the correctly exposed and gilded back frames and this is the route we suggested and which was approved. The frame pictured below has been re-gilded, this time with interlagio support and the two vertical members and one horizontal member are gilded on the rear and sides. This is plainly to be seen in the first sketch below.

Interlagio is a thin fabric covering applied to sound joints during the application of gesso. Traditionally silk is used but a fine lawn or sea-island cotton is just as good. Beware of using a material past its best which will be weak and liable to part as the joint flexes. The interlagio is pasted over the joints with a first coat of thin gesso and subsequently covered with thicker gesso as work proceeds.

The interlagio material must not be too heavy, or it will be difficult to cover in the gesso coatings. Above all the interlagio must not be so near to the surface that when the gesso is cut back or carved (also known as cutting) that it suddenly appears—so go for a really fine material. The chairs were water gilded and the highlights burnished.

A surprise was the discovery that the cushion covers are of hand-stitched kid leather and presumably original. Bert, had come across five or six examples of white kid being used for cushion cases and quoted that King George II had a travelling bed with a ticking of kid leather. Next comes the upholstery which, in view of the restoration of the back panels, required a new approach. and I asked Bert to write a piece on the proper way to do this which now follows :

Upholstery of Bergère Chairs

Below are two sketches showing how the outside back panel, framed between the two gilded vertical members, is placed and the method of fixing a length of cane 10mm above the seat platform to allow the various stuffing covers to pass underneath before tacking to the top of the seat rail.

The top sketch shows how the back of the chairs will look with the seat cover coming through under the horizontal rail. The centre panel upholstery meets the seat upholstery snugly showing no light.

Many thanks to Bert for these two very clear sketches which should be useful references to any reader faced with the same problem.

Marquetry Moulding

There is a small group of very fine late 17th century bracket clocks by various important makers that used cases made by a 1 or more closely linked Huguenot makers. Arguably they could have all come from the same workshop or indeed even from the same maker. They follow very much the form of case normally associated with standard 8 day 1/4 repeating bracket clocks that were produced in very large numbers at that time.

Although we do see mounts on bracket clock cases at this time it should be remembered that they were simply applied ornaments rather than integral with the design of the case. Mounts would often have very little to do with each other and were often used just to "fill up spaces" and to "lift" a clock's appearance. It was not until the end of the 17th century and the work of craftsmen under the patronage of William III, newly arrived from Holland that we see cohesive designs of mounts designed specifically for a particular case.

Foremost amongst these designers was probably Marrot working alongside Thomas Tompion to produce coherent designs of case and mount.

We are all familiar with longcase clock cases dating from as early as 1675 with marquetry designs, initially with somewhat crude floral panels but quickly developing into all over animal infested floral designs, complex arabesque marquetry and these too often being infested with animals. We see this work also on furniture of similar date but its prevalence was always much greater on clock cases. Although, in this period the marquetry became very highly developed especially when executed by the many imported craftsmen coming from Holland and notably France (the fleeing Huguenots) it was generally never as refined as some continental work of the same date. The finest being produced in Augsburg particularly in the form of gold and silver inlaid into turtleshell (pre-dating the work of Andre Charles Boulle).

Two doors from the front of an Augsburg altar clock (circa 1690), the panels each only 2 1/2" high are inlaid with three colours of engraved metal, mother of pearl into Hawksbill shell backed with gold leaf.

The bracket clocks in the aforementioned group go some way to reaching the heights of superlative craftsmanship seen on the continent. Although at this time,the English were the undisputed world leaders in terms of horological design and craftsmanship, we fell behind in cabinet and decorative surface work. Without the use of mounts, the ornamental designs on these two clocks were designed specifically for the spaces they were to fill and displayed a flair we were not to see again until the great cabinet making firms from the middle of the 18th century emerged.

Clock on left: Fromanteel & Clarke (London). Clock on Right: Gretton (London)

That on the left is particularly flamboyant. Although now a beautifully faded mellow colour, it's timbers include fustic (canary yellow) padouk (bright orange) and harewood (stained sycamore and holly) in bright reds and greens. There are arabesque designs but also floral patterns which grow from the mouths of men and birds standing upon hidden heads.

Here the tulip which scales the side of the Clock is growing out of a human mask (image above left). Although not quite as fine as it's Augsburg counterpart, this bird (image above right) standing on a head amongst flowers and foliage from the basket-top is on a similar scale.

Where the skill of the English craftesmen really starts to show its finesse and on a par with our continental counterparts is in the mouldings to the Fromanteel and Clarke case. The Gretton has fine kingwood cross grained mouldings but the Fromanteel and Clarke has mouldings in which the marquetry runs right through their thickness. On the Gretton every moulding is produced in this way. The marquetry is cut thick (sometimes as much as 1/4") and then glued on to a substrate in the normal way before the moulding is cut. Some were incredibly fine; the marquetry "blank " for the moulding would need to cut with incredible accuracy, the blade being kept completely vertical at all times or the pattern would become very distorted upon moulding. The pieces would have been impossible to cut in a "pack" (as in normal marquetry cutting) further emphasising the need for absolute accuracy so that the individual pieces fitted together after cutting. They would need to be temporarily glued to their substrate prior to moulding as they would need to be dismantled again to allow for sand shading of relevant pieces. They would then be finally re-assembled and glued ready for fitting to the carcass after the other marquetry had been laid.

	Here the original (top) has been scanned to produce a paper pattern, shown below the original, together with the two pieces of timber (each 4 mm thick) to be used to make the moulding.
	2 copies of the scan are made (1 for each piece of timber) and glued onto the timber.
	Both pieces have been cut and the paper pattern removed from the lighter piece.
	The pieces are now ready for interchanging.
	The pieces have now been assembled.
	Stuck to the substrate and are now ready for moulding.
	The completed marquetry moulding.